Tuojiangosaurus - Facts and Figures

Name: Tuojiangosaurus (Greek for Tuo river lizard); pronounced TOO-oh-jee-ANG-oh-SORE-us Habitat: Woodlands of Asia Historical Period: Late Jurassic (160-150 million years ago) Size and Weight: About 25 feet long and four tons Diet: Plants Distinguishing Characteristics: Long, low skull; four spikes on tail About Tuojiangosaurus Paleontologists believe stegosaurs--the spiked, plated, elephant-sized herbivorous dinosaurs--originated in Asia, then crossed over to North America during the late Jurassic period. Tuojiangosaurus, a near-complete fossil of which was found in China in 1973, appears to be one of the most primitive stegosaurs yet known, with anatomical features (lack of tall vertebral spines toward its rear end, teeth in the front of its mouth) not seen in later members of this breed. However, Tuojiangosaurus did retain one very characteristic stegosaur feature: the four paired spines at the end its tail, which it presumably used to inflict damage on the hungry tyrannosaurs and large theropods of its Asian habitat.

The Cuban Missile Crisis The Cold War - 1323 Words

Wars have been going on since the beginning of time, whether it is fighting for your religions, fighting for land, and fighting for your rights and freedoms. Some wars cause dramatic amounts of deaths, but the Cold War resulted in none. The reason there were no deaths is due to the fact that the Cold War was just that, cold. The conflicts never heated up enough per say to cause a real war. Though the Cold war itself wasn’t a war fought in battle, there were parts caused by it such as the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and the Cuban Missile Crisis, all of which resulted in deaths. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a major factor in the Cold War and possibly the most memorable in relation to the Cold War. The outline of the Cuban Missile Crisis†¦show more content†¦Kennedy insisted on measures that insured against un-premeditation, such as precautions against the any unauthorized retaliations. Though, many of these precautions can only give a short glimpse into how close many of the scenarios thought out by scholars could have come to reality. The CIA played a large roll during when it came to intelligence gathering and analysis in the crisis. They also had a successful part in keeping an eye on Soviet build-up in relation to their discovery of the medium-range ballistic missiles found. The CIA was mostly successful, besides some downfalls, in detecting, identifying and reporting any weapons introduced to the Cubans from the Soviet Union. This was all done before those weapons even had a chance to be attained in an operational capability. The Cuban Missile Crisis itself relied on intelligence and most any inquiries on it are about the intelligence involved. The ability of the CIA could be due in partial to the fact that there were not many problems legally or morally at the time, at least that were brought to light, this allowed them more freedom in collecting the intelligence needed. Much of the actions taken by the CIA have been declassified and released to the public. They received annual budgets of 50 million dollars i n order to conduct activities such as poisoning sugar exports, destroying oil refineries, blowing up railwayShow MoreRelatedThe Cuban Missile Crisis : The Cold War1081 Words   |  5 PagesIRBM missiles to Cuba) turned away from its intended destination, which marked the end of the sinister Cuban Missile Crisis (â€Å"Bos†, pgh. 2). The Cold War was a perpetual state of political animosity entailing the employment of propaganda, ultimatums, and other nonviolent means, which existed between the two universal superpowers (the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics [U.S.S.R.]) that had recently emerged at the closing of World War II. Albeit the Cold War is chronicledRead MoreThe Cuban Missile Crisis : The Cold War1472 Words   |  6 Pages. The Cuban missile crisis was one event that helped ignite the Cold War. It was a thirteen day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union over Soviet airborne missiles deployed in Cuba. It was the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full blown nuclear war. It was an intense, 13-day political and military standoff in October 1962 over the installation of nuclear-armed Soviet missiles on Cuba, just 90 miles from US. The Cuban Missile Crisis was really about the locationRead MoreThe Cold War : Cuban Missile Crisis2377 Words   |  10 PagesMr. DuBois World Studies 19 June 2015 The Cold War: Cuban Missile Crisis Nuclear catastrophe was hanging by a thread ... and we weren t counting days or hours, but minutes. Soviet General and Army Chief of Operations, Anatoly Gribkov The closest the World has ever been to nuclear war was with The Cuban Missile Crisis. The lives of millions lay in the ability of President John F. Kennedy and Premier Nikita Khrushchev to reach an agreement. The crisis began when the United States discovered thatRead MoreThe Cold War And The Cuban Missile Crisis2976 Words   |  12 Pagesmaking war on the poor. Blind mother justice, on a pile of manure. Say your prayers and the Pledge of Allegiance every night. And tomorrow, you ll be feeling all right† (Song Lyrics by Mimi and Richard Farià ±a). Most know of and have studied the Cold War: lasting almost fifty years leaving most American citizens living in complete fear of nuclear annihilation at any moment in time. Many can even name important events in the Cold War, such as ‘The Berlin Wall Collapsing’ or ‘The Cuban Missile Crisis’Read MoreThe Cuban Missile Crisis During The Cold War1378 Words   |  6 PagesThe Cuban Missile Crisis occurred in 1 963 in a setting that was the high point of tension in the Cold War. The most significant background cause of the Cuban Missile Crisis was the underlying cold war ideology of capitalism vs communism. This was dramatically increased by the second key cause, a series of events that quickly built tensions between the super powers from 1959 such as the U2 incident, JFK’s response to the Berlin Wall, and the Bay of Pigs incident. The third cause was the relationshipRead MoreCuban Missile Crisis : Nature Of The Cold War1092 Words   |  5 PagesCOLD WAR ASSIGNMENT (Cuban missile crisis) Nature of the Cold war The cold war was a clash between two superpowers with competing ideologies, or sets of ideas. Although they had been allies against the common enemies of Germany and japan during World War 2, both sides distrusted each other. After the war this distrust evolved into a long term hostility. This era was called the ‘Cold war’ because the two superpowers never directly assaulted each other. This war was very political as it was foughtRead MoreThe Cuban Missile Crisis During The Cold War1612 Words   |  7 Pageswere involved in the Cold War. When Cuba accepted communism, the United States tried to drive out Cuba’s leader, Castro, during the Bay of Pigs, but it failed (Kauffman). The U.S. were concerned even more when they discovered Soviet Missiles in Cuba. Kennedy had established a quarantine to try and stop weapons coming to Cuba, but it was still a mystery when it came to what Kennedy’s response would be. Many Americans were in favor of using military actio n to remove the missiles, while critics of militaryRead MoreThe Cuban Missile Crisis Was A Key Part Of The Cold War2751 Words   |  12 PagesThe Cuban Missile Crisis was a key part of the Cold War, and one which major scholars and historians see as the closest the world has come to thermonuclear war. This has made it one of the most documented events of the Cold War, with journal entries, books and films being made about the defining thirteen day period, each giving a unique perspective and overview of the crisis. The fact that both the United States and the Soviet Union managed to avoid the use of nuclear weapons is seen by many as aRead MoreThe Cuban Missile Crisis Was A Big Event During The Cold War897 Words   |  4 PagesThe Cuban missile crisis was a big event during the â€Å"Cold War† that almost brought the world into a nuclear catastrophe. In this event the Soviet Union deployed around 100 tactical nuclear weapons to Cuba aiming to land in U.S. territory. The pos sibilities of a nuclear war was predicted by the president of the United States John F. Kennedy to be around a 33% chances of actually happening. The local Soviet commander in Cuba could have launched these weapons that were sent without additional codesRead MoreThe Cuban Missile Crisis Was A Harsh Time During The Cold War1602 Words   |  7 PagesThe Cuban Missile Crisis was a harsh time during the Cold War. About 50 years ago the USA and the USSR were at each others throat for a very pointless reason. This basically started because USSR planted nuclear bombs in Cuba which was pretty close to Florida. John F. Kennedy was the president at this time and he was not to fond of that idea. October 1962, JFK was warned that the USSR had the nuclear weapons set up in Cuba ready to attack and as a result of this situation, Kennedy then also placed

Aids in the African American Community Free Essays

In the mind of the public, the AIDS problem is undoubtedly linked to sexual behaviors and possibly perceived to be a result of promiscuity, nonmonogamous sexual activity, and a well-deserved problem that should affect gay and homosexual people. To a certain extent, efforts to combat AIDS in the African-American communities have also been hindered by the fact that we know very little, beyond stereotypes and myths, about the sexuality of African-Americans. These perceptions have provided much of the confusion about what we should do about HIV/AIDS, or for that matter any of the health problems that are at epidemic levels in the African American communities throughout the United States. We will write a custom essay sample on Aids in the African American Community or any similar topic only for you Order Now It has also been the case that several of the important sources of leadership in the African-American communities have utilized the AIDS epidemic to develop and promote extremely conservative religious and moral agendas and punitive responses toward persons who are already considered to be unfit members of the community. For example, during the first wave of the AIDS epidemic there were several stories within the African-American communities across the United States about ministers who were preaching to their congregations about how AIDS is â€Å"God’s punishment for homosexual people who sin.† While there is no way to determine the extent of this attitude among African-American ministers and preachers, approximately one-fourth of the sample (28 percent) of African-American college students was in agreement with this belief. â€Å"There is a long history in the United States of African-Americans and other minority groups being devalued and of having their behavior labeled deviant. In the case of AIDS, the victims are further socially ostracized. A prime example is the fact that Haitians were at one time considered a risk group. Because of this, many Haitians lost their jobs and experienced extreme levels of racial discrimination, not because they had AIDS, but because they were Haitians and therefore linked to AIDS† (Moore and LeBaron, 1986). So, it appears that efforts to combat HIV/AIDS have been hindered by (1) our lack of knowledge about the sexuality of African-Americans, (2) research that has not seriously examined the variability of behavior and attitudes within African-American groups, (3) community and religious leaders who view the AIDS problems as punishment from God, (4) our intolerance of gays and bisexuals within the African American community, and (5) the lack of attention directed at the prevention of sexually transmitted diseases prior to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. If one accepts these observations, then what are we to do in order to develop effective and culturally sensitive AIDS-prevention messages that will reach African-Americans, who are not monogamous, are not abstinent, and who do not use IV-drugs. One solution is to make sure that African-Americans have an adequate understanding of the factors associated with the transmission of HIV/AIDS. Overall, the pattern of the results indicates that African Americans are very knowledgeable about AIDS, but there appears to be a gap between knowledge and risky sexual behaviors. The development of culturally sensitive AIDS-prevention programs for African-American college age adults may be facilitated by considering some of the insights gained from the study. For example, data suggest the gap between knowledge and risky sexual behavior is likely to be filled with different attitudes and beliefs for males versus females, or individuals with multiple versus non-multiple sexual partners, or individuals with or without a history of STDs, or individuals with or without HIV/AIDS. (Nikitta Foston, 2002). Information uncovered by this investigation revealed that males are less knowledgeable about several factors involved in the transmission of AIDS than females. On the other hand, individuals with multiple partners were more likely to believe that AIDS is caused by bacteria or the same virus that causes VD. Knowledge about the factors associated with the transmission of HIV/AIDS was essentially identical for subjects who practiced unprotected anal intercourse and those subjects who did not. Individuals with HIV/AIDS correctly answered only 55 percent of the questions concerning the transmission of AIDS while those not exposed correctly answered 85 percent of the AIDS knowledge questions. These data suggest that educational information and self-assessment instruments may need to be created for and targeted at specific African-American groups rather than rely on a wide-scale mass media campaign to reach all individuals. One way to accomplish this aim may be to create materials that enable African-Americans to actively question and evaluate their own risk. Perhaps one of the problems that has to be overcome in order to implement such a plan is to identify the explicitness needed in the HIV/AIDS prevention messages for African-Americans who are not monogamous and engaging in risky sexual behaviors (e.g., anal intercourse). The possible means of how to minimize the gap between knowledge and risky behaviors could go on and on, but the one way that is likely to result in a more favorable outcome is to simply ask the people involved to provide solutions. Seldom have we taken this position around a major public health problem, but what can we lose by asking African-Americans to generate solutions to problems that are the focus of so much human suffering. One of the barriers to effective HIV/AIDS education programs in African-American communities is the fact that the people and organizations have not been encouraged to believe that HIV/AIDS prevention would be more effective when planned, executed, and propagated by members of their own community. In other words, African-American community members are not involved in the empowerment process which stresses both individual determinations over one’s own life and strong democratic participation in the life of one’s community. The notion of empowerment presupposes that African-American community members have the competency to intervene on their own behalf but lack the necessary resources. How to cite Aids in the African American Community, Papers

Odysseus (1256 words) Essay Example For Students

Odysseus (1256 words) Essay OdysseusMost individuals have a conceived concept of the ideals in which one highlyvalues or desires to acquire. These ideals generally make up the mannerisms of aperson one considers a true champion, whom can be existent or imaginary. Thisrelatively immaculate code of ethics is also accompanied by achievements onefinds admirable. This person is usually goes through a series of tests orhardships that prove their importance. This is what one considers a hero. Givingthe term hero such a definition, ones idea of a hero may completely differ withanothers concept of such a person worthy of praise. In todays eclecticsociety, everybodys heroes are different. Ones hero may be a character in anaction movie, surviving against all odds to finally get the bad-guy in the end. It may be a character with superhuman strength with no concern of death like thehero in the epic Beowulf. Others may desire more intellectual heroes such as theWright Brothers, devoting years of effort to create a machine to make man fly,or Thomas Jefferson, risking his life by writing the Declaration ofIndependence. Some may call one with great moral value a hero such as MotherTeresa, Pope John Paul II, or even Jesus Christ who suffered and died so wehumanity could enter the Kingdom of God. During the era of Homers, The Odyssey,the majority of the population in ancient Greece had the same basic ideas of thequalities a hero should have. Espino 2 The Greeks valued a warrior with greatphysical strength as well as shrewdness. The emphasis on strength was based onthe fact that battles were frequent from city-state to other city-states. A herofor those times would need to have a strategic way of thinking and wisdom to aidin achieving the numerous tasks placed before him. Heroes should als o beeloquent in their manner of speaking, for it was a tool necessary so otherscould easily be convinced by the heros speech. All the values necessary for ahero are portrayed in The Odyssey. These are told through the stories andexploits of the main hero, Odysseus. In Book IV of the Odyssey, Menelaos and hiswife Helen, both tell a story of one of Odysseus accomplishments during theAkhaian war against the Trojans. Helen tells of how Odysseus ingeniously hadgiven himself an outrageous beating and thrown some rags on todisguise himself as a beggar and slip into the impenetrable city of Troy. Onceinside, he was unrecognized by the Trojans by merging with the townspeople. Odysseus found Helen and told her of the Akhaian plans to conquer Troy. OnceOdysseus had learned of the Trojans war strategy, he left the city and killedmany Trojans on his way out with his sword. Many examples of the concept of ahero can be seen in this tale. Odysseus used his wits to think of a plan, whichwould be useful in accomplishing two goals: to tell Helen of the Akhaians plansof rescuing her while taking over Troy. The other goal was to find out hisopponents stratagem. Helen describes the shrewdness of Odysseus in makinghimself pass for a Espino 3 beggar, and allowing himself to be humiliated by hisenemies, but without revealing his true identity. He then makes his exit whilekilling some Trojans along the way, illustrating his strength. Helens taleportrays some qualities of Homers concept of heroism: ingenuity, sagacity andbravery. Menelaos tells another of Odysseus feats after his wife is done withher tale. He tells of how Odysseus will power and leadership saved all of the fighters inside the hollow horse. He tells of how Helen approached the horsewith Deiphobos and called each of the warriors names as she walked around it. .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 , .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .postImageUrl , .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 , .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11:hover , .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11:visited , .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11:active { border:0!important; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11:active , .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11 .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8a76e9079da33ad2bb064bfc62d87e11:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Tupac EssayHer voice sounded like each of the fighters wives and caused the warriors greatlonging to go or to call out to the voice. Odysseus fought down Menelaos,Diomedes and held his hands over Antiklos mouth to prevent him from callingout. Odysseus thus saved the warriors from being discovered. Menelaos taledepicts Odysseus as a man with patience and strong will-power. Menelaos himselfnames Odysseus characteristics when he says never have I seen one likeOdysseus for steadiness and a stout heart. It can also be understood thatOdysseus is a leader that protects the lives of others as well as his own. Thiscan be seen when he prevents the soldiers from calling out to Helen. Aside fromthe qualities mentioned, Homer also adds another concept to heroism which is theelement of altruism. This is clearly evident because most of Odysseus actionsare for the for the benefit and well-being of others. For Espino 4 example, thereason why he is fighting the in the Trojan War in the first place is to helphis friend Menelaos rescue his wife Helen from the Trojans. Aside from these twostories painting a picture of Homers idea of a hero, they also predict some ofthe latter events in the epic. These stories give the reader a hint about someof the tasks Odysseus will encounter since they are similar to each other. Thisis especially evident in Helens tale of Odysseus because he uses the sametactic of disguising himself as a beggar back home at Ithaka. With the help ofPallas Athena, she disguises Odysseus into looking like a beggar so he can studyhis enemies without being seen. This can be seen in many of Odysseus remarks,like in Book XVI Odysseus states, I alone must lea rn how far the women arecorrupted; we should know how to locate good men among our hands.. Also inBook XVII, Athena also tells Odysseus to study his enemies closely while underthe transformation by saying, learn who are the descent lads, and who arevicious.. Odysseus is once again ridiculed, in his own home this time, butmanages to compose himself and keeps his identity a secret until no longernecessary. This further expands on Homers concept of a hero by also showingthat patience and ability to maintain ones composure under any circumstance isa virtue that a hero should have. There are many instances where Odysseus mustwatch over his crew to prevent them from being killed or hurt. This is seen inMenelaos story of the wooden horse and how Odysseus fought down three membersof his crew to Espino 5 prevent them from going or calling out to Helens voice. If they had been discovered, the Trojans wouldve killed them. Menelaos storyalso has many similarities with events that happen to Odysseus later on. In theevent of the Lotus Eaters, three men had eaten the Lotus plant and thus longedto stay forever on the island to die. Odysseus forcefully brought all three backto the ship and tied them under their rowing benches to protect them. Odysseusalso risks his life to save his crew in Book X. The goddess Kirke had turned agroup of Odysseus men into swine by giving them food, tainted with a potion. Odysseus became worried after they had not returned and went to find them. Heencountered Kirke and had them changed back into men. This shows the importanceof loyalty and care that Homers idea of a hero should have for his friends. These were the values the people of Homers time favored in a hero. Even thoughOdysseus comes from a vastly different century than other heroes, most of thequalities that make them heroes are the same: bravery, intelligence, patience,and loyalty. It seems as if the basic virtues of a hero have remained unchangedover thousands of years. Odysseus is still one of the great heroes that we have. .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c , .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .postImageUrl , .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c , .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c:hover , .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c:visited , .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c:active { border:0!important; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c:active , .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u242852e524a7ec265e80ee3552e75d6c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Nelson Mandela EssayThis is why The Odyssey has been studied for thousands of years, and people inthe future will continue to read about great heroic deeds of Odysseus due to thetimelessness of this story.

Slavery, Racism, and the trans

Slavery is a practice which dates back thousands of years. Conversely, racial discrimination is more appropriately defined by the mental and concrete conduct of the tormenter and the oppressed and their environmental context. Racism essentially defines the revulsion and trepidation that people keep on mankind with different skin colors.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Slavery, Racism, and the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The advent of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in the early modern period gives evidence of how old slavery is. Europeans who arrived in Africa came with the impression that they are much superior to Africans. This wont angle clearly signifies how to a degree slavery arose from racism. Africans were seen as lesser human beings who were incapable of much advancement. They were viewed as uncouth and vulgar, traits which differed from the White generations. Colonizers he nce used this claim to justify their being slaves. Africans were seen as less than ordinary human beings who did not merit equal consideration, therefore could not be treated as humanely as the others. There was widespread suspicion, which eventually led to substantial abuse, which further intensified the determination of the Whites to have laborers. The more the White population increased the more demand for labor in plantations and the existing manufacturing industries. In England, for example, the staff was thoroughly Black; hence the appearance of the idea of Africans being slaves. Their children inherited this image, and the slavery convention gradually became fortified. By the 17th century, Africans were convincingly seen as assets to be transacted. They were part of the transactions including other stuff in trade. Ciphers were formulated in an attempt to control slaves. Laws which were formulated later in the century endeavored to establish punctilious preeminence over Black people. This form of racism was bent to ensure that Blacks resigned to their fate of being slaves. These codes gave them no hope of ever acquiring sovereignty. Blacks were not seen as worthy of the privileges of liberty for which they were demanding. Whites constantly oppressed Africans in order to self-enhance their ego. This self-centered psychology and bigoted personality are what resulted in slavery in various countries. This impacted other colonies who strived to pass Black descendants through these ideologies. Presently, African Americans in America comprise the greater percentage of the prison population. They are among the most poor, uneducated and unemployed. Police are also more likely to kill a Black man than a White individual. The innate fear and hatred that we have on the success of other skin colors indicate the extraordinary existance of racism. Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Discrimination is part of the process of oppression. Differences in inherited characteristics, for example, skin color, have been used traditionally used to classify the oppressed as less inferior. In the context of the Atlantic Slave Trade, it could be argued that racism in the New World arose from slavery. Bigotry was an outcome of slavery at the onset of early entrepreneurship. Slavery existed as a system of trade before America began its conquests, long before racism could be defined. Classical roman empires were based on the slave trade which had no relations to the skin color of people. Slaves were mainly from countries which had been conquered, or victims of war. There was no interest on the ethnic attribution of the slaves, as their sole purpose was to provide. Humans were classified as either cultured or heathen. Hence, a White person could be considered as barbaric therefore less accomplished while a wise black being could be viewed as more productive. The civilization process could not have been that rapid had the spirit and input of slaves not have been integrated in maturity. The trans-Atlantic slave trade, which lasted hundreds of years, is credited for the massive migration of Blacks and the intensification of the slave trade. It was the initiation of globalization of the new world. This resulted in Africans being transacted as property by Americans and Europeans leading to their exploitation and eventually prejudice. The trade was all-inclusive, leading to an outsized economic framework for the coordinating countries. Religious, legal and philanthropic grounds justified forced labor. The culture and religion of many African communities were affected through this trend hence disadvantaging the intensification of success in the continent. Africa could not compete effectively with other continents, predominantly America and Europe who were growing their economies through forced labor. The world viewed Africa as a continent of slaves who were doomed to be second-rate to other races. Slavery thus resulted in the background of racial discrimination, with the Whites stereotyping Blacks as being substandard. These stereotypes were so severe that even Whites who were much poorer than some Blacks were seen as superior and deserving better treatment. The color of their skin exempted them from slavery and ensured their receipt of essential civil rights. The Blacks were keenly supervised in plantations, for fear of revolts. This fear of a revolution gradually grew tensions between the two races; the slave and the lord, leading to the formation of ethnic distinctiveness in the western countries.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Slavery, Racism, and the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These new distinctions destabilized the resistance of the White generation to slavery. Whites who were once slaves got incorporated into more benign forms of paid employment. Slavery was subsequently exclusively related to any Black person. Any African was thus seen as a potential slave, incase an individual was not one already. The cultural boundaries were thus opened by slavery in the new world. Slavery lasted for the many years due to its profitability. The affluent became richer as the sweat of the unpaid slaves expanded their farms. The trans-Atlantic transactions of slaves were also promoted by some African leaders who collaborated with Whites in capturing slaves. This portrays an imperfect image for Africans who are seen to have encouraged the trade. The domestic disturbance successfully eradicated slavery in the United States. Unfortunately, the effect on slavery was exceedingly minimal. Just as it was created to explain forced labor, racism was fashioned to classify Blacks as second-rate citizens. During colonization, the super powers exploited different territories in search of cheap raw materials to mait ain their industries. They made decisions for the populace in the invaded territories thus signifying their superiority. Racism continued in order to justify the mistreatment during the trans-Atlantic traffic. The development of African children who learn about their inferiority at a tender age is undoubtedly influenced. Leaders were taught how to administer power by practicing dictatorship. Changing this understanding in order to promote democracy in African countries thus becomes extremely difficult. Europeans and Americans therefore have no weight to disparage the administration criteria of Africans heads of state. This employment of political force has affected many countries, increasing distraught conditions like paucity and food shortage. The above arguments suggest that racism was made my man in order to justify certain actions like slavery. This means that racial segregation can be eliminated through reducing the feelings of supremacy. The relationship of discrimination and private enterprises is immensely valid. In any capitalistic setting, racism must always be involved. Capitalism is the source of ethnic segregation, and its abolishment will unquestionably eradicate racism.Advertising Looking for essay on african american? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This essay on Slavery, Racism, and the trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was written and submitted by user Roselyn Potter to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Analysis and Discussion of essays

Analysis and Discussion of essays Running head: SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF THE FIRST DECADE OF PERSONAL COMPUTING The First Decade of Personal Computing The First Decade of Personal Computing is an interesting account of the technological and financial highs and lows of the computer revolution of the 1970s. Computers of today have evolved from the 1950s room-filling monsters, which required a small army of people to maintain and operate. The 70s computer revolution should be grouped by the following years. From 1970-1974, frustrated engineers accumulated plentiful creative hours inside garages or in other various work centers attempting to turn their computer dreams into reality. In 1975 one of the first and most successful personal computer, Altair 8800, was created and sold. The spring of 1976 Steve Wozniak unveiled the Apple I. Several other computers emerged during this time due to the increased demand and innovation. In 1977 a major paradigm shift changed the way computers were sold. Fueled by the innovative shifts of Apple II, Commodore Pet, and the TRS-80, computers shifted from the kit to the assembled versions. From 1978 until the early 80s the focus shifted to software support. The development of office software applications and video games provided the core technology for computers to become essential for everyday applications. Companies like IBM, APPLE, and Radio Shack profited during the revolution while even more failed. The following key concepts were exhibited through out the article: Ingredients of a new venture, Entrepreneurial Style, and Dynamics of new ventures. All new high-tech ventures have 5 elements, all of which were present in Steve Wozniaks invention of the Apple I. Wozniaks first ingredient, a new product or process or service based on new technology, was the ca ...

United Health Group and the Health Reform Policy Essay

United Health Group and the Health Reform Policy - Essay Example United Health Group and the Health Reform Policy The group strives to provide all people an access to quality health care. The passing of the health care reform act is one of the events that have had measurable effects on the majority of American health insurance industry. This paper will analyze the activities of the group, its strengths, and weaknesses and highlight how health insurance reforms will affect the group’s standing. The united health group operations fall under two main categories. These include the united health care and optum. Under each of these activities, there are distinct business units that define the services offered by united health group. United health care employer and individual unit offers a comprehensive package of health benefit plans specific for the public sector, individuals, employers, and educational institutions. In addition, the united health care Medicare and retirement unit strives to provide Americans aged 50 years and above with health security through preventive services and chronic disease management. Moreover, the united health care community and state unit strives to provide societies and communities to care for those facing economical hardships and those without employer-funded health insurance. On the other hand, optum health strives to enhance the well-being of people in society by offering health management plans that help people live healthier lives. In addition, optum insight offers information concerning the health care sector in society. Optumrx helps in delivering customer prescriptions and integrated pharmacy services. The united group provides such a wide range of health care services in the United States and additional 33 countries. ... For consecutive years, it has managed to remain a dominant leader in the market. Being a leader in the market, the health group has a shorter sales system in the market because vast awareness of its services in the market. In addition, leadership in the market earns the group loyalty from clients. United health group has earned publicity in the United States and is a preferable choice for many people. The fact that united health group has diversified services is an additional strength. The group can make profits from a vast range of services. In addition, the group registers a great financial performance in the health insurance sector. Weaknesses The united health group has several weaknesses that serve to give its competitors an advantage in the market. Statistics show that the company has numerous debts. Being in debt places unwanted pressure on the group because it has to ensure a continuous flow of cash to enable it pay the debts. In addition, debt brings along numerous restricti ons to the group, negatively affecting its operations. Indebtedness affects the company’s financial stability placing it in an unfavorable position in the market. In addition, stock option practices have often affected the company’s reputation in the market. Reports indicate that the company has indulged in unfavorable stock practices affecting its operations (EBSCO Publishing, 2011). The signature of the health care reform act by president Obama had an impact on the insurance sector. The reform introduces a form of regulation by the government, a factor that affects the growth in the industry. The group has the privilege to run the Medicaid insurance plan, which is a contract from the government. The reform requires an increase of the

The Soloist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Soloist - Essay Example has long escaped from it, being more disposed to unconventional living where he is caught between schizophrenia and the will which Lopez desperately helps him with for the revival of his exceptional talent and passion for music. The story identifies the premise in the musician’s yielding to profess virtuosity at the time the effect, unconsciously leads him beyond norm. Accordingly thus, his schizophrenic behavior necessarily reflects significant disturbance in the manner he wanders about with his instrument and in an odious external, deed and talking which no real person with common logic seeks to afford. A mentally disordered individual in Nathaniel’s case, may be found to exhibit symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and grossly disorganized behavior (DSM Criteria). The film gives evidence to the fourth sign showing Ayers to have a rather crudely embellished outfit, that strikes an abiding impression as both bizarre and beaten up like his wagon of improvised percussions awkwardly set up. Characterized by unwieldy facial gestures, some repressed desire manifests through his overall countenance. Visual hallucinations have had recurrences in his childhood, the varying instances of which have one element in common. At the early stage of his deepening struggle, Nathaniel sees a rolling cart of fire by the window when he was by himself playing cello one evening. Likewise, when Steve sends him over to watch a classical concerto, he perceives flashes of colorful lights in the middle of raptures, having transported the symphonies to his full attention, earn ing remembrance of his fondness for Beethoven. The time he gets the chance to perform with a live audience however, just when he’s about to hit the bow on string, a brilliant light passing the slits of the upper deck collides his eyes. It comes too bright to blind a sight away from the rest that subsequently makes him recollect an act of rudeness toward his sister, a scene at daybreak

Challenges in Managing Talent - Part II Assignment

Challenges in Managing Talent - Part II - Assignment Example It is therefore very important that even if changes will take place, stakeholders will always plan into the long term rather than looking at only immediate needs of the organization. Dear friend, indeed all areas of your presentation are very discerning. However, one area I would like to emphasize on most has to do with the implication for changes to talent management functions within the organization. I have a very strong personal feeling that whatever the outcome with the changes turns to be depends on what goes into the implementation of the change. It was therefore very refreshing to read that you share this same opinion. Based on what has been studied in literature, quote (year) posited that there is nothing like an outright right or wrong change to talent management functions. This is because there are times that changes will certainly be required to fill vacant positions. With this assertion in mind, I will base on personal experience from my workplace where changes at the finance department failed but that at the public relations succeeded to state that, where there is poor planning for changes, the implications are always

The Outbreak Of WWI An Accident History Essay

The Outbreak Of WWI An Accident History Essay The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand occurred on 28th June 1914. It can be argued that the Archdukes assassination has led to the idea that the outbreak of World War One (WWI) was an accident, an event that led to the greatest war the world had ever seen at that point. However, no single event can be solely responsible for causing such devastating consequences. There were other factors that led to the Great War, tensions that had been building for some time, a result of issues derived mainly from the past centuries imperialism and the rapid industrialisation that was changing the face of the world. Alliances between countries had been leading to and causing friction between European countries for quite a period of time, namely between the years 1879 and 1914. These alliances were key in factoring towards the outbreak of World War One. Furthermore, a complicated web of alliances across Europe was in place in 1914. The main alliances on either side were; The Triple Alliance (1882), which was an alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy, which stopped Italy from taking sides with Russia and The Triple Entente that, was made between Britain, Russia, and France to counter the increasing threat from Germany. At the point of the outbreak of war, it was extremely clear who would be allied with one another. The building tensions between countries factored towards the outbreak of WWI, whilst the alliances in place throughout Europe contributed towards the size and scale of the First World War. Another key factor that contributed towards the outbreak of WWI was militarism. Countries competed were competing with one another in terms of military prowess. The period preceding WWI has been called ‘The Arms Race. In essence, the big four powers of Europe; Britain, France. Germany and Italy were competing to build the most effective battleship. ‘If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates there might have been no war; it was the armaments race and the speculation about imminent or preventative wars which made his death in 1914 the trigger for war. Furthermore, the German naval build up is seen by some historians as the principal cause of deteriorating Anglo-German relations. The outbreak of the First World War occurred at a time of empires and imperialism. Furthermore, many of the economic causes of WWI can be attributed to a growing material dependency of advancing European nations on nationalism. France and Great Britain, for example maintained domestic economies and accumulated great wealth in the late 19th Century through trade, and their control of foreign resources, markets, territories and people. Moreover, Germany being a late arrival on the world stage, had a very modest empire compared to that of Britain or France. It was also locked out of the most valuable colonial regions in Africa and the Far East. There was also an upset in the trade balance with the rapid exhaustion of natural resources in many European nations. This exhaustion of natural resources made many nations eager to seek new territories rich in such resources. Out of this resentment intense rivalries developed between the emerging economic powers and the ‘great powers. Nationalism was another deep rooted factor that contributed to the outbreak of WWI. In Germany for example, Foreign Minister Bernhard Von Bulow adopted a policy called Weltpolitik in 1897. This policy aimed to seek ‘Germanys place in the sun commensurate with its rising industrial strength, namely by the creation of a colonial power to rival those of other powers. Furthermore, Germanys Weltpolitik policy contributed towards the arms race, another key factor in the outbreak of the First World War. When Wilhelm II became the new Kaiser in 1888 he had very different intentions for German diplomacy. Weltpolitik was essentially a plan that aimed to make Germany a large, strong and unbeatable empire in every possible way. The Agadir crisis was the international tension sparked by the deployment of a German gunboat to the Moroccan port of Agadir on July 1, 1911. The Agadir crisis occurred as a result of both imperialism and nationalism. The Triple Entente came into play during this cr isis with Britain at Frances aid as it had been in the first Moroccan crisis. Furthermore, on 21st July David Lloyd George delivered the Mansion House speech in which he declared that national honour was more precious than peace; ‘If Britain is treated badly where her interests are vitally affected, as if she is of no account in the cabinet of nations, then I say emphatically that peace at that price would be a humiliation intolerable for a great country like ours to endure The speech was interpreted by Germany as a warning that she could not impose an unreasonable settlement on France. Moreover the Balkan wars are commonly seen as an important precursor to WWI, to the extent that ‘Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbias territory and regional status. Germany also shared this concern, which saw Serbia as a ‘satellite of Russia. These events factored towards the outbreak of the First World War in the sense that Serbias rise in power contributed to the two central powers willingness to declare war following the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand. However, in terms of a counter-argument it can be argued that the outbreak of WWI was an accident, as from surface value it appears to have been sparked by a relatively small event in comparison to the devastation and turmoil that occurred afterwards. On 28th June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife Sophie, were assassinated in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. The assassins ultimate goal was the separation of Bosnia-Herzegovina and possibly other provinces from Austria-Hungary and attachment to Serbia to form a greater Serbia or a Yugoslavia. This event essentially led to a chain reaction influenced by the alliances between the main European powers. The alliances made prior to the assassination of the Archduke meant that countries were obliged to go to war. Thus, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia in retaliation for the assassination; Russia intervened to help the Serbians. Germany joined forces with Austria-Hungary, and France and Britain wer e bought in as a result of The Triple Entente an alliance between Britain, France and Russia. So in conclusion, I personally believe that the outbreak of WWI was not an accident to any extent. It was a result of deep-rooted factors that had been building tensions for some time, sparked off by a single event (the assassination of the Archduke) If other factors such as imperialism, nationalism, etc, did not come into play then World War One would almost certainly never have occurred. The nature of the period itself, very much a period about incredible power and wealth, a result of rapid colonisation and industrialisation would have also been a leading factor towards the outbreak of World War One. Bibliography Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes Bond, The First World War and British Military History History on the net The causes of WWI Wikipedia The origins of WWI History on the net, The causes of World War One History on the net, The Causes of World War One Bond, The First World War and British Military History History on the net, The Causes of World War One Bond, The First World War and British Military History Wikipedia, The origins of WWI Wikpedia, The origins of WWI History on the net, The causes of WWI History on the net, The causes of WWI

Industrial Revolution in the City Essay -- Essays Papers

Industrial Revolution in the City The Industrial Revolution was a period of great change for the country of England. Products went from being produced in households and by small businesses to being mass-produced by large industries. Products became cheaper and living conditions improved, but not at first for the working class. Terrible working conditions and hard lives sums up the status of the working class during the Industrial Revolution. The working class put in long hours and hard work for little pay and horrific living conditions. They moved from the farmlands and rural areas into cities that were thriving with industry and business. Populations all over England began to shoot up and cities became increasingly crowded until whole families lived in one-room apartments. Each able bodied member of the family worked to make some sort of income in order to survive. Life was tough for the working class in England. The country struggled with understanding how to balance their newfound technologies with nature and therefore the working class became in conflict with nature and horrible living conditions, while undergoing improvements brought along by the Agricultural Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. GRAPH Friederich Engels describes the conditions of an industrial city in England during the Revolution in The Condition of the Working-Class in England. He describes the living quarters of the working class as being very crowded. Some of the passages are so narrow that only one person can walk through it at a time.[i] Rivers of the city smell of terrible stench and are full of disease. Mills, tanneries, and gasworks drain into the river and leave slime and refuse in thic... ...es and Nobles, 1971), 218. [xii] Schultz, 218. [xiii]Schultz, 230. [xiv] Porter, 296. [xv] W.A. Speck, A Concise History of Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 95. [xvi] Sidney Low and Lloyd C. Sanders, The History of England: During the Reign of Victoria (1837-1901) (London: Paternoster Row, 1926), 280. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- LINKS: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html http://www.maoism.org/lenin/F_Engels.htm www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/condition-working-class/ http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/PHchadwick.htm http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/carnegie/ http://pages.yahoo.com/nhrp?o=karachambers&p=ChildLabor.html&pos=1&f=all&h=/cultures___community/issues_and_causes/human_rights/child_labor/

Atanarjuat: the Fast Runner Essay

The role of religion has been a major factor of every culture for as long as anyone can remember. The feeling of togetherness that comes with belonging to a group of people that believe in the same ideas and a central entity defines a person and the way they see the world. Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner  shows the impact of a certain belief on a tribe of Eskimos in Igloolik, a village in  Eastern Arctic wilderness, at the dawn of the first millennium. An evil curse was said to be following one member of the tribe, Oki, because of his jealousy of Atanarjuat. The film follows the lives of these two men and the conflicts they have as they grow older. It also focuses on the spiritual ideas that drive both Oki and Atanarjuat, and their other tribe members, to drastic actions. From the beginning, the curse is embedded into the film successfully, as it helps explain why certain things happened to Atanarjuat and Oki. The curse was portrayed by a sound effect whenever a person was affected by it. Without that effect, the idea of the curse may not have come across as well, and might even have been forgotten until the end. As well as the curse was portrayed, the reason for it coming about was a bit confusing for viewers who were not used to the language and style of the film. Years before the story of Atanarjuat and Oki, a shaman predicts that a curse will be brought on by Tulimaq. By no coincidence, camp leader, Kumaglak, died in a duel and his rightful successor, Tulimaq, was passed over and Sauri was given the title. Tulimaq does not take this well, accusing Sauri of helping murder his father. Tulimaq becomes a laughing stock and cannot feed his wife and kids, Atanarjuat and Amaqjuaq, though he gets help from his friend, Panikpak, widow of Kumaglak. It was hard to understand what exactly caused the curse and why Tulimaq was the one burdened by it with the way the story was told. The quick scenes and unclear dialogue were not exactly helping in telling this story, especially since it was from a culture that most viewers would not be familiar with. Overall, the film was effective in describing the actions and beliefs brought on by Tulimaq’s curse. The power the idea that the curse is what causes the constant conflict between Atanarjuat and Oki is portrayed skillfully. In the beginning a tribe member, Qulitalik, is shown leaving the village in fear of the curse, but promises to return if his sister, Panikpak, ever needed his help. This promise is so strong that, decades later, when Atanarjuat needs help hiding and defeating Oki, Qulitalik is the person that aids in ending the curse. This brings in the idea of loyalty to family and community and shows that these were vital beliefs of the tribe. Another aspect of the film that greatly helped illustrate the importance of both the tribe’s beliefs and conviction of the curse was symbolism. Throughout the film, certain symbols and symbolic gestures were used to show the tribe’s belief in a certain idea. Right before her husband dies, Panikpak witnesses a stone lamp fall and break in half, which foreshadowed the bad events that were to come. A walrus-tooth necklace was introduced in the beginning of the film as a sort of heirloom of Kumaglak. It was given to Sauri as a symbol of his new power as the new chief. Although it is just an object, it revealed the tribe’s faith in what it represented because at the end of the film, once the necklace was returned to Tulimaq’s spirit, its rightful owner, peace is brought back to the village. This film shows how greatly this tribe of Eskimos are effected by their beliefs and rituals, although the viewers may not be familiar with them. In the ethnography Never In Anger by Jean Briggs, she describes the difference in gender roles in Utku tribe. They were very similar to those of the tribe of Igloolik. The women were the caretakers, doing housework, tending to animal hides, looking after children, and cooking, while the men fished, hunted, and built igloos as shelter. Each sex was separated during meals and women were submissive to men. This played an integral part in the film, especially for the character, Puja. She did not seem to want to conform to the ideals of what women were supposed to do in the tribe, and was seen as lazy and spoiled. She also seemed to believe she could have more than one man, as men were allowed to have more than one wife, and challenged this idea when she seduces Atanarjuat’s brother, Amaqjuaq. The women’s role in the village was a catalyst for certain actions taken by the males. For example, Atanarjuat and Oki had their first conflict over Atuat when she and Atanarjuat fell in love while she was betrothed to Oki. Oki goes after Atanarjuat once again when Puja lies about his brother hitting her for no reason, when in fact it was because she was caught cheating on her husband with him. Although women were not in charge of the actions of the tribe or important decisions of the tribe, it is shown that they do have importance in another sense. They can influence the men’s actions individually and in terms of the tribe as a whole. The film Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner definitely has some aspects that need improvement for viewers who are not familiar with the Eskimo culture to understand. However, in terms of portraying the culture and beliefs, this film gives its audience something they can identify with. No matter where they are from, they can sympathize with what believing in a supernatural notion can make one do, and how family and community loyalty influences ones decisions.

Reclamation Of Grey Water Refinery Oily Wastewater Using Bioprocesses Treatment

Reclamation Of Grey Water Refinery Oily Wastewater Using Bioprocesses Treatment Background of Grey Water Treatment Pidou et al. (123) note that literature on the treatment of grey water has been there since 1970s. Membrane filtration accompanied with disinfection was among the primary technologies investigated for physical treatment. Biological treatment technologies like the aerated bioreactors rotating biological contactor and biological aerated filters were investigated in the 1980s and 1990s (Pidou et al. 123).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Reclamation Of Grey Water Refinery Oily Wastewater Using Bioprocesses Treatment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More During the decade, the simple physical separation procedure fitted in residential places. At the turn of the millennia, MBRs as well as reed beds were introduced as alternatively sophisticated and cheaper technologies. Chemical treatment has also featured in literature, thereafter. Figure 1: A diagrammatic representation of chemical technol ogies that applies filtration or flotation. Source: Pidou et al. (30) Figure 2: A diagrammatic scheme of a biological wastewater treatment system Advertising Looking for report on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Source: Chipasa (137) Description of Bio-Processes for Grey Water Treatment Bio-processes in grey water treatment include fixed film reactors, rotating biological contactor, anaerobic filters, sequencing batch reactor, membrane bioreactors, and biological aerated filters (BAF) (Pidou et al. 18). Much of the literature reveals that in most settings bioprocesses hardly operated as standalone unless intended for pilot investigations. Often, sedimentation, disinfection or screenings were installed as physical pre-treatment preceding the bioprocess systems (Pidou et al. 13). In other arrangements bioprocesses with membranes as in the case of activated carbon, MBRs, sand filters or extensive treatment technologies such as constructed wetland (Hastuti, Medawaty and Pamekas 368). The Moving Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) technology was a direct improvement of the Fixed Film Activated Sludge Process. At the onset of 1990s, Norway improvised the first MBBR. Thereafter, the corporate behind the invention began setting up small treatment units with design that integrated MBBR as well as the Norwegian State Pollution Control Authority recommendation. In the recent past, there has been proliferations of large plants that apply the MBBR technology thus give the treatment method a big publicity in the wastewater industry. MBBR procedures are undertaken on bio-film systems within heavy carriers, which mix wastewater as well as suspend on the reactor with turbulence. The system occurs between an activated sludge and an immovable bed bio-film system. MBBR boasts most of its strength from activated sludge coupled with bio-film carrier elements that are produced from polyethylene whose d ensity falls below that of water. The elements are modelled to allow a lot of surface area for the bio-film. MBBR treat incoming wastewater through microorganisms that are cultured on bio-carriers that suspend in the fluid within the MBBR reactor. The microorganism contained in the bio-film is heterotrophic in nature; thus, utilize organic carbon to accumulate new biomass (Abdul-Majeed et al. 1551).Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Reclamation Of Grey Water Refinery Oily Wastewater Using Bioprocesses Treatment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Facultative bacteria are some of the highly preferred heterotrophs as well as serve to dissolve oxygen in the fluid composite. The viscosity of the biomasses rises with the increase of microorganism numbers within the bio-carriers. The viscosity of the biomass impacts the strength of dissolved oxygen and substrate penetrating the bio-film. Those microorganisms on the frontiers of the bio-film have accelerated ability to mix oxygen and substrate through every layer in the array within the bio-film strata. MBBR have an aeration component that lowers present dissolved oxygen where the bio-film has aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic strata. Nitrification in MBBRs has received rigorous research attention particularly with synthetic wastewater. Considering every bio-film reactors, nitrification rates are affected by the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the reactor, the concentration of cumulative ammonium nitrogen, organic load, the pH as well as alkalinity. It was demonstrated that at the temperature of 15⠁ ° C and surplus cumulated ammonium nitrogen within an organic load of 1gBOD5/m2 biofilm surface area/d and a concentration of DO of close to 5 mg/L; this had a capacity to achieve a cumulative ammonium nitrogen rate of elimination of 1 g NH4–N/ (m2.d). The quality of the water treated Building complexes have resulted to use biological schemes in c ollege hostels, stadiums and multi storey houses. This is tied to the bioprocesses efficiency on the Hydraulic retention times (HRTs) that falls between 0.8 hours and 2.8 days. High strength grey water requires treatment systems that have higher HRTs such as mixed grey water and laundry wastewater whose BOD concentration ranges between 645 and 300-1200 mg.L-1. Compared to others biological systems perform fairly better at a mean time of 19 hours. Such systems have organic loading rates for Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) on the range of 0.10 and 7.49 kg.m-3.day-1; while for BOD varies from 0.08 to 2.38 kg.m-3.day-1 (Pidou et al. 14). In the case of the MBRs, organic loading rate values are lower at 0.88 kgCOD.m-3.day-1 compared to the standard wastewater treatment range of 1.2-3.2 kgCOD.m-3.day-1.Advertising Looking for report on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Stand alone systems applying the BAF, bio-films or rotating biological contactor (RBC) have their organic loading rate 1.32 kgBOD.m-3.day-1 thus their range falls within 0.3-1.4 kgBOD.m-3.day-1 (Pidou et al. 14). Regardless of the range and type of the bioprocess, systems that integrate a biological component have efficacy in eliminating organic and other solids. Actually, there efficacy has been proved to be well above top range standards for reuse with residual results whose concentrations fall below 10 mg.L-1 (Pidou et al. 14). An investigation into the turbidity concentrations achieved by biological systems, effluents residual have been positively below 8 NTU. Additionally, close to all schemes with bioprocesses achieved suspended solid residual under 15 mg.L-1. Bioprocesses performed better in the elimination of microorganisms by means for faecal coliforms and total coliforms at 5.2 log and 4.8 log, respectively (Pidou et al. 14). At the remedial concentrations of 20 cfu.100mL 1 through biological treatment, faecal and total coliforms remained below the stringent targets. An advantage of MBR as a bioprocess for treatment is its efficiency for the eliminating microbial without having a disinfection stage. To demonstrate this, Pidou et al. (15) achieved a 5 log and a residual concentration that is less than 30 cfu.100mL-1. Other schemes employing MBR bioprocesses have given the robust elimination of the organic and solid residues at mean for BOD, turbidity and suspended solids at 3 mg.L-1, 3 NTU and 6 mg.L-1, respectively. However, the capability of bioprocesses treatment schemes are mildly impacted by changes in the strength and flow of grey water and potential shock loading (Pidou et al. 15). Studies on the domestic product spiking on biomass resulting from an MBR showed that at EC50 the relative toxicity for perfume (at 2.5 mL.L-1), bleach (at 7 mL.L-1), washing powder (at 20 mL.L-1), caustic soda (at 23 mL.L-1) and vegetable oil (at 29 mL.L-1). In other studies, the ability of MBR to revert to its initial performance capacity within a shorter period was indicative that MBR are minimally interrupted by feed, air or both; hence highly reliable. In the case when the feed was grounded for 25 days, no interruption was reported. However, there were different results when BAF was subjected to the same conditions. With BAF, short interval stoppages had no performance implications, but longer led to rise in effluent concentrations and periods for recovery across factors. According to Pidou et al. (15), return to original-standards period as a result of feed stoppages lasting a third of a day were a sixth of a day for turbidity and TSS and close to two for coliforms. Moreover, air stoppages lasting same period had a return to normalcy period were for BOD was 4 hours; for turbidity was 4 hours; for suspended solids was 24 hours; for faecal coliforms was 28 hours and for total coliforms was 24 hours. When air and feed stoppages were both comb ined, the return to normalcy period lasted the longest were BOD was 40 hours; turbidity was 40 hours; suspended solids were 4 hours; faecal coliforms was 24 hours and total coliforms was 48 hours. None of the factors had regained the initial normalcy in less than two days when feeds were interrupted for 25 days. Pidou et al. (16) observes there lacks adequate information on the cost for installation of bioprocess treatment systems. Previous studies on installation estimated a capital spending of  £3,345 for systems that served 40 students boarding and comprised of a deep bed filter, a buffering tank, Granular Activated Charcoal (GAC) and an aerated bio-filter. Spending on operation and maintenance on the consumables, energy and labor were annually estimated at  £128. The return on investment was measured in terms of water savings with an annual estimation of  £516 lasting over a period of 8-9 years (Pidou et al. 16). It was projected that installing the system on a newly const ructed house would cut the capital spending by  £1,720 and readjust the period on return on investment by 4-5 years. In a different bioprocess installation system that included a UV disinfection chamber, screening filter, a solids filter as well as a treatment tank on a bio-film generated by collection balls fitted to serve a household had a cost range between  £2,514 and  £3,325. Nevertheless, it was not immediately clear on the O M cost as well as the return on investment details for the installation (Pidou et al. 16). There are cheaper treatment installations done at a capital cost of about  £197 that serve the housing of six persons that comprise of four plastic barrels. A treatment installation that had a sand filter, a UV disinfection chamber as well as a septic tank had a capital spending in  £2,230 as well as an annual operating cost of  £87. The return on investment that recovered cost was annual water saving of  £34 (Pidou et al. 16). About  £30,000 will b e capital budget for installing a bioreactor with a disinfector, sand filter and aerated for student resident wastewater treatment. The estimated annual spending for operations and maintenance was  £611, while the return on investment through water savings was  £166 (Pidou et al. 16). Aqua-EMBR (Aquatech’s Enhanced Membrane Bioreactor) is a recent biological treatment technology applied at refineries and petrochemical settings. The treatment system has been effectively tried in the Middle East oil plants. The treatment system has further been enhanced via High Efficiency Reverse Osmosis capabilities to recover 90 percent high quality permeate. The quality of the treatment meets the standards for recycling which is fed into the system for demineralising. Compared to the original MBR technologies, the Aqua-EMBR has some additional strength. Aqua-EMBR works without a membrane tank hence faster build up with reduced risks to the operators. This technology has limited civil wo rk requirements during installations, for instance can be mounted as skid on a level concrete slab. Operators and proponent face fewer risks in the event of delays posed by weather elements, environmental threats as well as other local eventualities during structural setting up (Al-Hamaiedeh and Bino 115). Compared to submerged systems, Aqua-EMBR technologies are user friendly as well as convenient. The systems manager hardly senses the obnoxious smell or view or directly touches the bio-sludge (Xia et al. 7391). There are no exposed (from top) membrane tanks from where ambient air interacts with harmful aerosols. In the event of need for operational checks and repairs, membrane modules can be replaced without direct contact with bio-sludge. This is not the case with submerged membrane modules mucked by sludge, hence creating chances for operators to get direct contact with when lifting out of the tank. The system has flux that is higher by 50 percent which reduces the need for surf ace area visvis volumes permeate production by half. This lowers the capital spending and operational cost from the costing aggregation of membrane cost per unit volume filtrate. The Aqua-EMBR technologies provide footprint of lower than a fifth, which is the least known. The technology promises cost savings by eliminating unnecessary man-hour attentions and chemical input costs. While contrasting with submerged systems, Aqua-EMBR technologies have reduced electricity needs by about 12.5 percent through the application of airlift pump effect. The Aqua-EMBR technologies boast of the finest membrane pore type, which at the lower side are 30 nm and higher at 50 nm. The technology has a treatment efficacy of less than 0.2 NTU for turbidity and less than 0.5 mg/l for total suspended solid. Advantages of Biological Grey water Treatment Compared to other treatment technologies, bioprocesses are capable of eliminating organics. These technologies apply for only short retention times (Pidou et al. 18). While, other technology have a necessity for the disinfection stage to meet the standard for the elimination of microbial; MBR (a biological grey water treatment technology) does not need (Pidou et al. 18). Pidou et al. (18) explains that the higher efficacy of technologies was observed when combinations of technologies were applied in a scheme. While, an aerated biological reactor alongside sand filter had a low strength treatment of grey water. The scheme had GAC and disinfection retention concentration for BOD of 2 mg.L-1; a turbidity level of 1 NTU and total coliforms count of 1 cfu.100mL-1. Elsewhere, the combination of a disinfector, RBC as well as sendimentation filter has attended waster water from bathing with residual results of 0.6 NTU for turbidity; 5 mg.L-1 for suspended solids; 2 mg.L-1 for BOD and 1 cfu.100mL-1 for faecal coliforms (Pidou et al. 18). At an individual level, only the MBR that had activated sludge and membrane had the capacity to proximate s uch results. A side-stream membrane bioreactor demonstrated residual results for treating grey water indicate a BOD of 1 mg.L-1; turbidity of 1 NTU; suspended solids of 4 mg.L-1 as well as total coliforms count of 1 cfu.100mL-1. A submerged membrane bioreactor gave residual results with undetectable levels of suspended solids and coliforms; BOD of less than 5 mg.L-1 as well as turbidity levels below 1 NTU. Thus, it can be concluded that the MBR scheme is able to demonstrate residual results that meet the thresholds for reuse. Notably, the level of treatment relies on the reuse application. According to Pidou et al. (20), biological treatment systems were found to have efficient hydraulic retention time of 19 hours over others. MBBR allow choice of the filling of bio-film carriers in the reactor that allows the carrier to be suspended freely (Colic, Acha and Lechter 4150). The filling allowance extends up to 70 percent. The carriers are simply small plastic tubes with diameter and le ngth of up to 5cm. The production material is polyethylene with a density nearing g/cm3. The carrier is provided with several chambers that increase the total surface area of the bio-film. Thus, the features allow the treatment system to attend high strength industrial wastewater. MBBR surface area provides room for modification thus different shapes and size have been applied, while remaining effective. It is imperative to assess the contribution of a water treatment to sustainable water management based on local settings as well as regional suitability. Though biological treatment technologies such as MBBR require substantively more energy investment to achieve a desirable carbon footprint, they are preferable to serve a wider area for quality grey water and economized energy visvis schemes developed from other technologies. The advantages associated with MBBR include existing basins allow for increasing capacity, easily managed and operational; hardly do bio-film clog, no need fo r sludge return and enhanced nitrification for existing activated sludge facilities. According to BP North America (35), benefits associated with MBBR include: no need for more acreage, has the capacity to eliminate phenol to an influent concentration of 200 mg/L, maintenance cost is manageable and has acceptable lifespan. In addition, has robust tolerance ability to toxic shocks and insignificant sludge bulking issues as well as desirable eliminating capacity compared to other attached growth bioprocesses. Nevertheless, these bioprocesses have used a lot of energy. Disadvantages of Biological Grey water Treatment Extensive grey water treatment is the only technologies have more footprint than the rest. Biological treatment technologies provide limited footprint considering smaller spaces available in the urban environments. There are schemes incorporating a rotating biological contactor, sedimentation tank as well a disinfection occupying a 15m3 volume that serves 70 occupants in a storey resident, hence servicing at a meagre 0.2 m2 per person connected. Direct disadvantages associated with MBBR are elevated flows create potential loss of the element and the need for more stages to eliminate biological phosphorus. Moreover, there is a need for drive process to achieve more influent BOD loadings. MBBR achieve higher performance with extensive screening and removal or grit. Analysis of Domestic Grey Water Mix Grey water is a by-product the living habits of water consumers and hence the installations used in the due course result in variations in the ultimate characteristics of the water. The degree of variation depends on the intensity and diverse domestic uses resulting in grey and wastewater (Pidou, 9). Analysis of the characteristics with reference to the type of household activity generating shows that kitchen and laundry sources produce more compared to others in terms of organics and physical pollutants. Arguably, kitchen wastewater accompanies food waste ; while laundry wastewater has in its substantial contents of washing detergents (visvis its volume) (Pidou, 9). Those households that do laundry outdoor the wastewater may contain in its sand and clay particles. Water from the bathroom (also referred to as the light grey water) contains mainly washing products and hair that are minimally concentrated as well as small proportions of organic materials. The level of physical contaminants ranges between 33 – 249 NTU for composite grey water that is an indicator of high turbidity when compared to that of the sewer or potable natural water. The popular range particle size that cause turbidity occurs within 5 and 200ÃŽ ¼m. Pidou (9) explain that particle size for various sources of water in bathroom fall in the range of 10-100ÃŽ ¼m; moreover molecules contained in grey water have molecular weight less than 3kDa. Grey water composite whose mean concentration level falls between 154 and 113 mg.L-1 for BOD as well as suspended particl es, respectively, has concentration strengths that range between low to medium relative sewage (Pidou, 10). Analysis of wastewater from bathroom falls within the low to medium strength of sewage; laundry falls at medium to high; while, kitchen sink at high strength sewage. The ratio of the chemical oxygen demand (COD) and the biological oxygen demand (BOD) estimates at 3.2. In most cases, domestic sewage and effluent discharge have their ratios at 2.2 and between 3 – 10, respectively (Pidou, 10). The values reported for grey water imply that the biodegradability is relatively low. The COD:N:P ratio with values of 1:0.02:0.01 for grey water composite provided the necessary confirmation. Actually, the ratio reported for the same for sewage is at 1:0.09:0.02 (Pidou 12). It can be concluded the low rich nutrient of grey water contributes to the diminished biodegradability. Analysis of waste water from bathrooms and laundry activities gives the ratio for COD:N:P at 1:0.02:0.06 and 1:0.02:0.15, respectively an indicator of the high concentration of phosphorus (Pidou, 10). The absence of N and P in the wastewater is because that comes from human waste. Pidou (11) explains that more than four-fifths and two-thirds domestic loads of N and P, respectively come from faeces and urine. Pidou (11) explains that across the different wastewater types, the number of microbial ranged between 101 and 108 cfu/100mL. Moreover, added that the relative number of coliforms varies with the population distribution of residents found in the respective catchments (Pidou 12). Interestingly, households that had no children had low total and faecal coliforms count at 80 and 6 cfu.100mL-1 compared to households with children at 3.2Ãâ€"105 and 1.5Ãâ€"103 cfu.100mL-1, respectively. Principally, investigations on grey water have established the presence of E. Coli, faecal coliforms and total coliforms as indicators of contamination. There are likely chances of finding in grew water a v ariety of bacteria, protozoa, helminths as well as pathogenic viruses (Pidou 12). Hygiene and sanitation activities such as bathing of the young; after the toilet hand wash; doing contaminated apparel as well as rinsing edibles are the most likely contributors of microorganisms ending up in the grey water. In a Swedish residential study, it was found that grey water had 101.4-104 cfu.100mL-1 for somatic coliphages as well as 102.3-104.8 cfu.100mL-1 for C. perfringes spores.   The constituent for faecal enterococci was at 103-105.1 cfu.100mL-1; while the concentration of E. Coli and coliforms were 104.3-106.8 cfu.100mL-1 and 105.5-108.7 cfu.100mL-1, respectively (Pidou 12). Heavy metals also accompany domestic grey water. These include zinc cadmium, nickel, copper, lead, tin, cobalt and chromium. Grey water has also been found to have high amounts of xenobiotic organic compounds (XOCs) (Pidou 12). It is highly advised not to discharge grey water after reuse due to toxic as well as environmental risks posed by the presence of xenobiotic organic contents in domestic ingredients. There are higher chances of coming across XOCs in surfactants, preservatives and antioxidants, softeners, solvents, fragrances and flavours. The XOCs are not biodegradable, but also bio-accumulative. There are bio-concentration factors more than 100 as well as a log Kow beyond 3. The toxicity with EC/LC50 is less than 1 mg.L-1. Pidou (12) cites that kitchen and laundry waters lead to higher toxicity levels in the domestic grey water. Analysis of Oil Refinery Wastewater Mix According to Ishak, Malakahmad and Isa (251) oil refinery activity require colossal amounts of water for desalting, catalytic and treatment procedures to generate desired outcomes, such as LPG, jet fuel, and petrochemical feedstock as well as distillation and thermal cracking. It is estimated that the amount of wastewater generated is 0.4 to 1.6 times the quantity of unrefined oils. Nevertheless, release of untreated oil refinery wastewater into water masses poses environmental as well as human health impacts associated with harmful contaminants such as phenol, hydrocarbons, and dissolved minerals (Alade et al. 163). Some hydrocarbons are carcinogenic. Persistent exposure to contaminants may lead to health complications like leukemia as well as tumor growths on organs. However, oil refinery wastewater has been treated using physical and chemical approaches, higher costs for chemicals and apparatus and massive sludge formation has made the biological approaches to be highly preferred. Biological wastewater treatment methods are elementary, affordable as well as environmentally friendly. The application of membrane bioreactor achieved elimination efficacy within the range of 78 and 98 percent for COD, 96 and 99 percent for BOD, 74 and 99 percent for TSS and 99 to 100 percent for turbidity. Table 1: Proportions of Water Use at the Domestic Level Purpose Proportion Used (in %) Toilet wash-out 3 5 Wash basin 8 Overhead bathing 5 Ordinary Bathing 15 Laundry 12 Utencil cleaning 4 Out door activities 6 Kitchen sink 15 Source: Pidou et al. (34) Table 2: Distribution of Domestic Water Reuse Domestic Reuse % Water Reused Toilet flushing 54% Irrigation and Garden watering 36% Outdoor use and cleaning 5% Laundry 2.5% Infiltration 2.5% Source: Pidou et al. (36) Table 3: The Characteristics of Domestic Grey Water Source BOD (mg.L-1) SS (mg.L-1) Turbidity (NTU) Total coliforms (cfu/100mL) Mixed grey water 5-466 (154) 25-304 (113) 33-240 (84) 102-108 (107) Bath 129-192 (161) 47-58 (53) 46-60 (53) 102-104 (103) Shower 99-212 (155) 15-353 (173) 21-375 (131) 101-104(104) Hand basin 33-252 (138) 36-505 (183) 102-164 (133) 103-106(105) Kitchen 536-1460 (891) 235-720 (528) Laundry 48-472 (276) 68-465 (238) 50-444 (254) 103-106(105) Standards 10 10 2 ND Sewage 282 ±68 191 ±68 2.4Ãâ€"109 ±2.2Ãâ€"109 Adopted from Pidou (12) Table 4: The Characteristics of Petroleum Refinery Wastewater Aspect Estimates 1 Estimates 2 Estimates 3 Estimates 4 BOD5, mg/l 570 150 – 350 150 -350 COD, mg/l 850-1020 300 – 800 300 – 600 330 – 556 Phenol, mg/ 98-128 20 – 200 Oil, mg/l 12.7 3000 50 40 -91 TSS, mg/l 100 150 130 -250 Benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene and xylenes (BTEX), mg/l 23.9 1 – 100 Heavy metals, mg/l 0.1 – 100 Chrome, mg/l 0.2 – 10 Ammonia, mg/l 5.1 – 2.1 10 – 30 4.1 – 33.4 pH 8.0 – 8.2 7 – 9 7.5 – 10.3 Turbidity, NTU 22 52 10.5 -159.4 Source: Ishak, Malakahmad and Isa (252); Mahmoudkhani et al. (13) Table 5: XOCs contributed into the domestic grey water XOCs source Toxic content Surfactants benzalkonium chloride and alkylphenol ethoxylates Preservatives and antioxidants bronopol and triclosan Softeners diisononylphtalate and phosphonates Solvents heptane and 1,2,4- trichlorobenzene Fragrances and flavours hexyl cinnamic aldehyde and styrene Modified from Pidou (12) Table 6: Performance of MBBR Capacity on Conventional Sludge Parameter Performance Footprint requirement Low Efficacy in nutrient elimination High Tolerance of toxics Better than Conventional Activated Sludge Sludge settling Poor in toxic stress conditions Elimination of advanced total suspended solids (TSS) Variable Capacity to manage concentration surges Good Enhanced heavy crude degradation Good Tolerance to low temperatures Good Waste release Med Energy consumption Procedure for implementation Relatively straight forward Retrofit against new construction Retrofit, modular, needs additional retrofits Other Problems Abrasion losses 2%/yr; Limits fine bubble aeration Capital spending Low Source: BP North America (28) Table 7: Wastewater Parameters before and after MBBR Installation Parameter Before MBBR Installation After MBBR Flow 50 GP M 75 GPM Total Suspended Solids (TSS) About 200 TSS/mg/l About 900 TSS/mg/l Flocculants (fats oil and grease) About 150 FOG/mg/l About 650 FOG/mg/l BOD About 1,500 BOD/mg/l About 6,200 BOD/mg/l Source: Colic et al. (17) Table 8: Average Performance within a Month’s Period Parameter Before MBBR After MBBR Clarifier Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 45 TSS/mg/l 20 TSS/mg/l Flocculants (fats oil and grease) 12 FOG/mg/l 1 FOG/mg/l BOD 1,100 BOD/mg/l 18 BOD/mg/l Source: Colic et al. (18) Assessment of Oil Refinery Wastewater Treatment Performance Across Biological Treatment Technologies Technology Operation Cost Toxic Removal Sludge settleability Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) Very good Good Very good Normal Continuously Stirred Tank Bioreactor (CSTB) Very good Good Good Good Membrane Bioreactor Very good Good Very good Good Fluidized Bed Bioreactor (FBB) Good Good Very good Good Rotating Biological Contactor (RBC) Good Good Good Good Source: Ishak, Malakahmad and Isa (254) Table 9: The stringent Standards for Wastewater Reuse Country Application Aspect BOD (mg.L-1) TSS (mg.L-1) Turbidity (NTU) Faecal Coliforms (cfu.100mL-1) Total Coliforms (cfu.100mL-1) Japan Toilet flushing 2 ND Landscape 2 1000 Recreational 2 ND Israel Wastewater Reuse 10 10 1 Spain, Canary Islands Wastewater reuse 10 3 2 2.2 USA, California Unrestricted water reuse 2 avg 5 max 2.2 avg 23 max in 30 days USA, Florida Unrestricted water reuse 20 5 25% of sample ND and 25 max Australia, Queensland Greywater reuse for garden watering in unsewered area 20 30 100 Canada, British Columbia Unrestricted urban reuse 10 5 2 2.2 Source: Pidou et al. (35) Research theories and its application MBR According to Yang, Cicek and Ilg (201), research on membrane bioreactor technology has in the recent past concentrate on the UK, Japan and France, though the additional input has come from Germany, South Korea and China. There has b een keen interest to integrate gas and extraction function within the MBRs solutions. Scholarly works have delved on topical issues like fouling, optimizing operational performance and microbial characterization (Yang, Cicek and Ilg 201). Other areas likely to benefit from MBR innovation include elimination of a nitrate treatment for drinking water, elimination of endocrine disrupting compounds from wastewater streams and water types, improving bio-fuels generation through the membrane aided fermentation and gas production and purification on MBRs (Yang, Cicek and Ilg 201). MBBR The recent development in biological wastewater treatment has several facets. The introduction of new technology of bio-film processes a derivative of activated sludge process under the theory of biological wastewater treatment. Another face is the elementary process of wastewater treatment through processing system that result in biological transformation of organic matter such as the nitrification and de-n itrification. There are advancement on the biological process of phosphorus elimination and impact mechanism. Other areas of research advancement are Activated sludge model series, bio-film model series, pollution sludge treatment process solutions. Figure 3: Chronological account of Journal Artforle on MBR Technologies on Wastewater Treatment Source: Yang, Cicek and Ilg (202) Figure 4: Chronological and Country Distribution of Journal Publications of MBR Technologies Source: Yang, Cicek and Ilg (202) Table 10: Biological Wastewater Treatment Technologies Performance Location Housing/ Complex Type Scheme HRT (flow rate, Loading rate) Performance COD (mg.L-1) BOD (mg.L-1) Turbidity (NTU) TSS (mg.L-1) Total coliforms (cfu/100mL) Japan Stadium / Toilet flushing Screening + Sedimentation + Flotation + Rotating filters + Sand filter + Disinfection (622 m3/day) 243 6 336 20 207 10 10 Japan House Anaerobic filter + Submerged bio-filter + Sedimentation + Disinfection (1.735 m3 /day) 11 8 6 Korea Pilot scale Sequencing batch reactor + MF hollow fibre membranes 13 hours (1.2 m3/day) 79 30 5 5 185 China Pilot scale Screening + Membrane bioreactor 3.6 hours 130-322 40 99 212 5 146 -185 1 15 -50 0 ND Israel Student flats / Toilet Flushing Screening + Rotating biological reactor + Sedimentation + Sand filter + Disinfection About 18 hours 158 40 59 2 33 1 43 8 6.105+ 1+ Israel Student flats / Toilet flushing Screening + Membrane bioreactor + Disinfection About 18 hours 206 47 95 1 80 0 103 13 3.105+ 27+ Jordan House / Irrigation Sedimentation + Anaerobic filter 1-2 days 300 -1200 375 107 Denmark Industrial laundry Membrane bioreactor 2-2.5 days (60 m3/day) 1700 50 645 2 Germany Apartment building / Toilet flushing Sedimentation + Rotating biological contactor + UV Disinfection (2.1 m3/day) 100 200 43 85 4 104-105 104 Germany House / Toilet flushing Fluidized bed reactor + UV Disinfection (0.04 m3/day) 113 633 6 0 256 4 103-105 104 Finland Apartment building / Toilet flushing Aerated biofilter + UV Disinfection 8000 75 1.106+ 20+ Australia House / Toilet flushing, laundry and garden watering Screening + Biofilm + UV Disinfection 9 6 9 0* Australia House / Toilet flushing and outdoor use Septic tank + Sand filter + UV Disinfection 97 6 1 48 3 2.105 9 Norway Houses / Irrigation Septic tank + Aerated biofilter + Constructed wetland 62 10# 100 Germany Pilot scale Membrane bioreactor 10 hours 493 24 7 4 UK Student residence / Toilet flushing Screening + Aerated biofilter + Deep-bed filter + Activated carbon 9 1 6 995 UK Pilot scale Biological aerated filter 4 hours (0.4 m3/m2/h) 363 80 131 5 109 8 UK Student residence / Toilet flushing Biological reactor + Sand filter + GAC + Disinfection (263 m3/year) 201 62 212 5 7.105 3 UK Pilot scale Biological aerated filter 3.7 hours (0.328 m3/day) 128 13 41 4 3 52 6 2.106 2.104 UK Pi lot scale Submerged membrane bioreactor 13.6 hours (0.071 m3/day) 128 7 41 1 4 52 4 2.106 2 UK Pilot scale Membrane aeration bioreactor 0.8 hours (0.225 m3/day) 128 17 41 9 7 52 13 2.106 2.104 UK Pilot scale Side-stream Membrane bioreactor 2.8 days (0.137 m3/day) 273 2 181 1 1 58 4 3.104 1 UK Pilot scale Biological aerated filter + UF membrane 1.2 hours 80 6 25 0 52 1 6.105 1 UK Pilot scale Biological reactor + Sand filter + GAC (2.88 m3/day) 34 12 21 2 20 1 2.102 1 UK Arena / Toilet flushing Biological aerated filter 1.25-5 hours (120 m3/day) 84 14 31 3 3.105 3.103 Source: Pidou et al. (41); Al-Mughalles et al. (290) Adaptation Of The Processes In Canada And North America According to Yang, Cicek and Ilg (201), the application of MBR in North America occupies 11 percent of global installations. Popular brand of MBR in North America is Zenon, though elsewhere Kubota and Mitsubishi-Rayon are the common installations. It is focussed that the rise in stringent s tandards for wastewater treatment may popularize the MBR technologies, globally; thus driving innovation. Figure 5: Distribution of Use of MBR Technologies Source: Yang, Cicek and Ilg (207) Conclusion Literature show that the MBR technologies application has centred on wastewater treatment from domestic sources; while, MBBR technologies have been used in the oil refinery wastewater. Information on the advancement of MBR technologies is easily available visvis MBBR. This is probably, because the MBR technologies have present for longer than the MBBR ones. 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